History of Italy
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The imposing Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi consists of two churches; the lower one in Romanesque style dates from around 1230, and the upper church in Gothic style opened in 1253. The greatest artists of the 13th and 14th century (Cimabue, Giotto, Simone Martini and Pietro Lorenzetti) worked on the decoration of the Basilica, and left on its walls the most complex of medieval Italian painting.
All the Aeolian islands are of volcanic origin. The islands were inhabited since the Neolithic period, as evidenced by findings in the Castle of Lipari, the largest island of the archipelago, and also on the island of Panarea where a prehistoric village was found more than 50 years ago. The finds consist of decorated pottery and some obsidian objects . (Obsidian is a glassy rock of volcanic origin which splinters into very sharp blades and was the subject of a flourishing trade among all the countries of the Mediterranean Sea.)
Alatri is situated on the slopes of the “Ernici” mountains, near “Frosinone”. The Romans called it "Aletrium" (or "Alatrium"), but the etymological studies to date have failed to produce reliable and incontrovertible results, because "Aletrium" is not of Latin origin, as also witnessed the great Latin playwright Plautus (254-184 BC), who called "Alatrium" a "Barbaric Urbs", a "city of the barbarians", because it was built by people external to Italy (See C.O. Muller, “Sur le sens du mot barbarica chez Plaute”, in “Annales de l 'institut de correspondance Archéologique”, 1832, Vol. 4: 379). It is so obvious that the etymology of the city was sought in other languages. The hypotheses proposed in the past postponed to roots of Hebrew or Phoenician words.
The archaeological remains of the area where Alba is located date back to the Neolithic Age, and witness the first human presence between the sixth and the third millennium BC. The ancient settlement, quite extensive, was located on the left bank of the Cherasca River, just before the confluence with the Tanaro River.
Albenga (“Albium Ingaunum”) is an ancient city, inhabited by the Ligurian “Ingauni”, which later became a Roman municipality. The etymology is similar to "Albium Intimilium (" Ventimiglia ") that has its roots in an ancient term,"Albon" (city), while the second term refers to people of “Ingauni”, who founded it, and were probably they engaged in commerce.
The first nucleus of ancient “Anagni” dates back to the “Ernici”, a population which had to give way to the expansion of the Romans around 300 BC. The land on which Anagni is located, however, was already inhabited in prehistoric times, as shown some fossils of the "Homo Erectus" (the oldest in Italy), recently discovered in the valley. Some important traces of the Roman city are the so-called “Arcazzi”, imposing travertine arches that open onto the northern side of the wall. Renovated several times, however, was the monumental “Porta Cerere”, which was the main access to Anagni, even at the time of Ernici.
The ancient name of Anghiari, the town in Tuscany not far from Sansepolcro and “Città di Castello”, was "Anglarium" - the name certainly derives from the expression "Castrum Angulare", a reference to a “Triangular Castle” i.e. the nucleus of the village, which, as with Sansepolcro, belonged to the powerful and wealthy Monastery of Camaldoli. (Note however that the scholar Gino Franceschini believes that Anghiari derives from the word for "gravel", because the city is situated on gravel accumulated by the Tiber River over the centuries.) In the oldest document in which it is mentioned Anghiari dates back to 1083, when Bernardo, called “Sidonia” and the son of Rainier, the Lord of Galbino and Montedoglio (a vassal of the Marquis of Mont St. Mary), bought a portion of the castle and the jurisdiction of Anghiari from his brother Alberich.
History of AquileiaAquileia was founded in 181 BC in a strategic place to control the two critical boundaries of the second century BC, the so-called "Amber Road", which connected the transalpine world with the sea and the karst area, that could be subject to invasions from the East. In 186 there was an invasion by Transalpine Gaul towards the “Venetia”. They built an “oppidum”, a "fortified city". In 183 the Roman Senate decided the foundation of Aquileia. The reasons that led him to found a city in that place were many, as the easiest to defend the eastern area by barbarian populations. In 181 BC it was deducted as a colony of Latin Law (or a city with its own senate, but depending on foreign policy from Rome), in which were immediately transferred a large number of soldiers with their families. Aquileia was founded in a strategic place, or on the banks of the river "Natissa," the ancient “Akilis”, once navigable, as evidenced by the presence of the port, connected to the “Amber Road”; Aquileia was also the central point of three most important roads, the “Via Postumia”, starting from Genoa, “Via Annia” from Padua, and “Via Popilia”, which started from Rimini. From this moment Aquileia was devastated by continual invasions, including the Lombard, after which the patriarch and the inhabitants moved to Grado. The city in Roman times was equipped with the forum, amphitheatre, circus, theatre and several small and large “thermae”, which are now an attraction for tourists. EtymologyAccording to an etymology established among scholars, it seems that the city's name has its roots in "Akilis," a pre-Roman term, of Celtic origin, indicating that the river "[...] which probably gave rise to the name of Aquileia […]”. The basis of the name comes from the term "wara" ("water"), which is precisely the root of Aquileia, from 'Aquilis', the name of a river, with similarities in other regions, including Istria (See AA.VV., AA.VV., “Centro di antichità alto-adriatiche”, “Il territorio di Aquileia nell'antichità”, Arti Grafiche Friulane ["Centre of Ancient Upper-Adriatic", "The territory of Aquileia in antiquity," Friulian Graphic Arts], 1979:126). Some scholars said that the name derives from the “Eagle”, "that the Roman legions carried as ensign" (See G. Geromet, “Aquileia, la grande metropoli Romana” ["Aquileia, the great Roman city”], Fondazione della Società per la conservazione della Basilica di Aquileia , 1996: 16). In any case, accepting the first hypothesis, which seems to be shared more effectively, and also the most significant, Aquileia would mean "City of (or 'on') the River 'Aquilis'." Assisi is situated on the slopes of Mount Subasio, and it is well known worldwide for being the birthplace of St. Francis; the Romans called it "Asisium" and "Asis" (Propertius [50-15 BC]). But, apparently, "Asisium” was the Romanization of a most ancient name, because Assisi, as has been proved by archaeological studies, pre-existed the Roman conquest. Since it is situated in a location where many people came together from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds (Umbrian, Etruscan and Picenes), it seems unlikely that we can establish the original root of the name "Assisi." In this sense, some scholars have rightly said that the investigation about the etymology of Assisi, at present, “seems stranded in the ‘Limbo’ of postulates.”
Atri is a town in the Province of Teramo, and it is strategically located on a terrace overlooking the Adriatic Sea, with a very particular territory for the presence of the so-called "calanchi", i.e. geological formations caused by the erosion of clayey soil. The area of Atri was inhabited since the Iron Age, as shown by archaeological finds; the most accredited hypothesis about the origins of the city are two; the most likely says that the town was founded by the Etruscans; while the second connects Atri to the existence in the area of a colony founded by Dionysius of Syracuse (405-367 BC). The etymology of Atri seems to be related to a family name; G. Serra, on the subject, writes: "Adria et Hatria. 1) nomen urbis in Piceno, patria familiae Hadriani Imperatoris, hodie 'Atri', which seems to make up the current name of the ancient variant 'Atria', 'Hatria' (third century BC) (...) nomen pers. et quidem multa in gente Romana”"[“Adria "Hatria", the name of a city of Piceno, home of the family of Emperor Hadrian, now called "Atri", name of person very common among the Romans”] (See G. Serra, "Outlines of a Linguistic History of Medieval Italy", Liguori, 1965: 56). Anyway, a very detailed analysis of the origins of the term "Ater" ("dark"), which we find in many Italian names, was made by G. Recchia, who notes that "Ater" is linked to the presence of a river or water: "[...] G. Devoto specifies that the Umbria river 'Nera' was among the first to be inhabited by proto-Villanovan called 'Naharani / Na-harti'.
History of BarlettaThe first town at Barletta that, in Norman times, became an important commercial and fortified centre, formed around the church in the tenth century AD. The city had a strategic role in the control of the territory and was an important religious centre.
The town of Bassano-del-Grappa has very ancient origins, and we know it was inhabited in prehistoric times, as shown by archaeological finds and a protovillanovian necropolis (X-VIII century B.C.) discovered around St. George in Angarano. Bassano was conquered by the Romans, who called it Bossianus. Around the tenth century a fortress was built that was later transformed into a castle, with some houses around it - the first real core of Bassano. In early 1200 the famous 'Bridge of Bassano' was built. In the Middle Ages and up until the fifteenth century, Bassano suffered was defeated by many Italian Seignoiries: the Vicenza, the Scaligeri (Scala family from Verona), the Visconti from Milan and Padua all established their domination of Bassano at different times.
Bergamo is a city of a very ancient origin, perhaps even pre-roman. According to an ancient legend, Bergamo was founded by Cidno, son of Ligure and a descendant of Noah. In reality we know that in Bergamo there were human settlements already in prehistoric times, the Ligurian and Umbrian, who in the VI century B.C. were conquered by the Etruscans. Bergamo owes its name to the Gauls, founding it once again after its destruction, and calling it "Berg-hem", literally meaning the "House in the mountain". In Roman time the name was Latinized as Bergamum. Under the Roman domination, Bergamo was a city of great importance and was surrounded by mighty walls. The city flourished from agricultural and commercial activities, and according to Polybius and Cicero it had a fruitful soil.
Bevagna is situated in a fertile valley of Umbria, crossed by rivers Topino Timia, Clitumnus and Attone, just 200 meters above sea level. Bevagna, which the Romans called "Mevania, although it entry in the history with the Roman conquest, has a tradition much older. Archaeological excavations have, in fact, revealed that the territory of Bevagna was already inhabited in prehistoric times, then, in the seventh century BC, by the Umbrians and probably by Etruscans, if it’s true, as some Italians and foreign scholars think, that the etymology of ancient "Mevania" has its roots in the Etruscan word "Mefana", which refers to a family name. Carlo Pietrangeli writes: [...] An indication of the persistence of Etruscans in territory of Mevania could be provided by the place names: the name of 'Mevania' may in fact derive from the noble Etruscan 'Mefana' [...]" (See C. Pietrangeli, "'Mevania' (Bevagna): Regio VI Umbria, Institute of Roman Studies, Rome, 1953: 22.).
The town of Brescia is situated at the outlet of an important Alpine Valley, the Trompia Valley. Unlike Bergamo to the west it developed in the flat country at the foot of the mountain. The location reveals the importance that the city has had since ancient times for the control of the Trompia Valley and the surrounding countryside.
History of BrixenBressanone (Brixen), which was inhabited from the Neolithic era, in Roman times was conquered by Drusus (38-9 BC), stepson of emperor Augustus (63 BC-14 AD) in 15 BC and incorporated into the Roman province of "Rhaetia". In 590 AD, after the fall of the Roman Empire, this land was incorporated into the Duchy of Bavaria. King Louis the Child (891-911), the last King of the Carolingians, in 901 gave the royal court "Prichsna" the bishop Zacharias (XI century). Around the year 1000 was born the city, surrounded by walls, which, after the donation of the Inn Valley Counties and of Isarco, made in 1027 by Emperor Conrad II (990-1039) in favour of the bishop of Brixen Artvigo, became the capital of the country. In the thirteenth century, much of the territory was usurped by the Counts of Tyrol. The Ecclesiastic Principality of the Holy Roman Empire with its three city of Bressanone, Brunico and Klausen, including some jurisdictions in nearby valleys, lasted until 1803. EtymologyAs regards the etymology, the interpretation of the place name is established until the nineteenth century, and it dates back to the Celtic word "brica", “briga”(top, hill, high ground) with several findings in other areas of Celtic influence (“Bressa” in Gaul, in Spain “Brexa”, Bressanone and "Brixia", Brescia). The name is attested for the first time in 827 as "Pressena", "Prichsna" and “Brixina”. G. Rose wrote that "[...] The root of Brixia is repeated in "Briscen” (Brixen) in the “Vindelici”, one of the Germanic tribes, in 'Brescello' in the area of Modena, in 'Brissa' in Ticino, 'Bresega' in Padua, 'Bressa'in the area of Udine, in 'Brix' and 'Brixem' in France (...) for which it is said that the root was shared by several people, perhaps indicating a “very high place”, that the Celts called 'brig' [...]" (See G. Rosa, in“Dei Reti e dei Cenomani Antichi”, “Archivio Storico Italiano”, Reprinted from Bibliobazaar, 2009: 245). The etymology of 'Brixia', like 'Brixina' (Brixen) has its base within the Akkadian term 'Pirku' (land-line Border 'Querlinie', 'Genzbereich eines Stadtgebietes'); the second component of 'Brixia' corresponds to the Neo-Assyrian 'issu' and Akkadian 'Isdu' ( foundation: of a building , wall, Organization of country or city '): as for' Brixina ', on the Inn River [...]" (See G. Semerano, "The Origins of European Culture", Olschki, 1984: 630). Therefore for prof. Semerano, Brixen would mean simply "the act of foundation or organization of a city." History of BrunicoBrunico (Bruneck) is ideally situated at the heart of important roads; indeed the Puster Valley was already inhabited in prehistoric times, as evidenced by the numerous remains found in Dobbiaco, Monguelfo and Brunico (See the important study by M. Borda, " A ‘Mansio’ in Noricum: 'Sebatum' in 'Cultura Atesina ", 3 (1949): 4 ff.). As regards Brunico, it is situated in an area, such as the Puster Valley, which is rich in castles. After Drusus (38-9 BC) and Tiberius (42 BC-16 AD) conquered the settlements in the Isarco and Adige Valleys in 15 AD, the Romans penetrated deeper into the territory, reaching the Puster Valley.
We observe immediately that about the origins of Camerino arose, especially among historians of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, various interpretations which involved a lot of confusion. Today, studies have shown that the etymology of "Camerino" comes from the population of “Camertes”, widely scattered over a territory which belonged in Roman times to Umbria and now it is in the Marche; but some historian confused Camerino with “Cluvius” (Chiusi), which was located in Etruscan territory, and which was once called "Camars" ("Ad Clusium, quod 'Camars' Olim appellabant”, Livy (59 BC-17 AD), X, 25 [" At Chiusi, which was once called 'Camars' ]). The confusion arose from fact that "Camars" has the same basic of “Camerinum”. GB Pellegrini writes :"[...] Chiusi was an old name of 'Camar(s)' ['Kamar(s )']... Giacomo Devoto stresses the affinity of 'Camars'-'Chiusi' with Umbrian 'Camertes' (Livy, IX, 36), who lived on the Adriatic side of Apennines (Camerinum) [...]" (See GB Pellegrini,“Toponomastica Italiana”, ["Italian toponymy"] Hoepli, 1990, p. 24).
Caprarola is located just over 500 meters above sea level, on the eastern side of the “Cimini” Mountains, dominated by the "palace-fortress” built in the fifteenth century by the noble and powerful family of the Farnese. Although there are traces of prehistoric settlements in the form of piles in the lake of Vico, and some remains of Etruscan and Roman tombs in the place called “Barco”, the first historical documents about Caprarola date back to 1223, concerning the existence of a religious brotherhood.
The primitive nucleus of Casale Monferrato probably developed near the Po River, around the castle of the Paleologi, then to the Basilica of Saint Evasio. Casale Monferrato was the capital city for two hundred years of the Marquisate of Monferrato, a small but fierce State that retained its independence for 800 years and it ceased to exist only in 1708, when it was subjected to the domain of Vittorio Amedeo II of Savoy (1666-1732). In this very long time, the Marquisate was first ruled by the Aleramici, then by Paleologi and, finally, by Gonzaga. Etymology - a long story that traverses the centuries!Casale Monferrato is an ancient city which, with Roman domination, was called "Vardacate," and this name was mentioned by Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD). The transition to the modern name was something pretty slow, but, following the events of the ancient church of “St. Evasio”, the patron saint of the city, we can reconstruct the change of name through the centuries. In fact, Aldo A. Settia, who studied the transformations of the city name around the '70s, wrote that the Church of St. Evasio is cited as "[...] located ‘in loco Casalis' ("in a place called ‘Casalis’), in documents dating back to 928 and 1020; and then the Church itself is quoted 'infra Castro qui dicitur Casalo ' ('inside a fortified place called' Casalo'') in a document dated 1100, and, finally, ‘in Burgo Casalis’ (' in the Village of ‘Casale’ '), regularly from 1173 onwards (...) From the thirteenth century the expression ‘Burgus Casalis’ indicates therefore the whole town, probably fortified by a moat outside [...] (See Aldo A . Settia, “Monferrato: strutture di un territorio medievale” ["Monferrato: structures of a medieval territory”], Celid, 1983: 110, 205. The previous edition was published in the late '70s, “Sviluppo e struttura di un borgo medievale: Casale Monferrato”["The Development and Structure of a Medieval Village: Casale Monferrato”], 1978: 37-39). Recents archaeological digs demonstrate the origins of Cesena to before Roman times. Its ancient name is probably derived from the Latin word Caesenia, indicating a 'wood cut' (from caedo-caedere - to cut). According to scholars’ studies it is here that we can locate the old Selva Lithuania, where the Boii Gauls in 216 BC reported a resounding victory against the Romans, led by Lucius Postumius (consul 234 B.C.). Cesena became a Roman colony around the 3rd or 4th century BC, and was ruled by a Roman praetor. Later it was subject to Odoacer (435-493 AD) and for this it had to endure for a siege by Theodoric (454-526), who obtained the domain in 493 AD.
About the etymology of Chiavari, there have been various proposals in the past, so that, effectively, we have not some orientation for any time. In the '80s came, however, an important study, which even today enjoys a large consideration, of the scholar T. Franceschi, who established “ […] a parallelism between ‘Klava’ and ‘grava’ (a probably Celtic or Mediterranean term, which seems to mean ‘pebbles producted and conveyed from the water,’ ‘gravel’, ‘pebbly of the stream’) […].” (See T. Franceschi, “Sull’ etimologia di Chiavari e dintorni, in “Atti del convegno di studi internazionali per l'VIII centenario dell'urbanizzazione di Chiavari” ["About the etymology of Chiavari and its surroundings, in “Proceedings of International Studies for the eighth centenary of urbanization of Chiavari”, Genoa, 1980, pp. 122-127”].
History of ChiavennaAlready known in Roman times, the little town of Chiavenna had a remarkable importance in the early Middle Ages; after the thousand it became an independent municipalitu, although it was later submitted to the Bishopric of Como, passing then, in 1335, to the Visconti and Sforza. Finally, it was under the Grisons until 1797. The present old town dates back to the sixteenth century, since the medieval town was destroyed by fire in 1486, and new city walls were built by Ludovico il Moro (1452-1508). From the late eighteenth century it was the domain of the French, then the Austrians, coming first in the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1859 and then in the Kingdom of Italy (1861). EtymologyAbout the etymology of Chiavenna, which the Romans called “Clavenna”, we must distinguish the traditional from the contemporary hypothesis; while the first, fairly intuitive, derived the name from Latin term" Clavis "(" key "), meaning the location a "key point" of the defence system against external invasions; in fact, Chiavenna is located near the “Splügenpass”, the "key" and "door" along the Alpine passes among Italy, Switzerland and Germany. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it was clear to all scholars that " nomen a 'Clave' venit", or "the name derives from the Latin 'Clave'" (See "Helvetia Antiqua et Nova", 1737, p. 285) . The traditional positions were summed up by G. Devoto (“Tabulae Iguvinae”, Typis Regiae Officinae Polygraphicae, 1940, p. 356), who quoted this passage: "[...] 'Claverna’suffixi etrusci ope a themate 'Clave' tractum videtur, quod in Italia Septentionali nonnumquam invenitur, 'Clavenna' flumen, Clavenna urbs, 'Chiave' apud Cortina et similia, praeterea ep. Gentilicium nomen Clavius [...]", or "Claverna, a term that seems to stretch from the Etruscan root 'Clave', which is present everywhere in northern Italy, like the Chiavenna River, the city of Chiavenna, or 'Chiave' near Cortina and the like; the name also reflects the family name 'Clavius'. " The name Chioggia derives from the Latin words 'Fossa Clodia', where 'Fossa' means a 'channel', and Clodia refers to the mythical Clodius, who, according to legend, arrived in Italy with the Trojan hero Aeneas and founded a city in the place where Chioggia now stands - Clodia (the city of Clodius). The two islands that make up Chioggia were a safe refuge for the Veneto population when subject to barbarian invasions in the 5th century. Chioggia the city has it's roots in the eleventh and twelfth centuries AD, by which time it had already assumed the role of port city, developed around the salt trade salt, fishing and other economic activities related to its the sea. Already by this time some important buildings were constructed in Chioggia, including religious and civil Palaces, such as the 'Palazzo Pubblico' (dating from the second half of the thirteenth century).
The ancient city of Chiusi was formerly one of the twelve cities of Etruria and the site of the most powerful Etruscan tribes, governed by Porsenna in the 6th century BC - Porsenna was an Etruscan king who greatly increased the power of the city, as recorded by the Roman historian Livy (59 BC-17 AD).The tradition tells that the tomb of the famous King was formed by a series of underground tunnels connected to form a kind of labyrinth. Becasue of this story, taken from the "Naturalis Historia" by Pliny the Elder (23-79), the tunnels dug under the historic core of Chiusi are known as the 'Labyrinth of Porsenna' - although in reality it is only a drainage system that carries rainwater into different tanks.
Cingoli is a small and pleasant town in the Marches, but over the centuries, it has given notice to scholars of exceptional problems about both its antiquities and etymology. With regard to antiquity, the problem arose from a dubious interpretation of certain assertions in Caesar's (100-44 BC) "Bellum Civile" (I, 15), who wrote: "[...] Auximo Caesar omnem progressus agrum Picenum percurrit. Cunctae earum regionum praefecturae libentissimis animis recipiunt exercitumque eum eius omnibus rebus iuvant. Etiam ‘Cingulo’, quod oppidum Labienus constituerat suaque pecunia exaedificaverat, eum legati veniunt quaeque imperaverit se cupidissime facturos pollicentur [...]"; i.e.: "Starting from Osimo, Caesar walked the whole territory of Piceno; all Prefectures of the Region received him with a great enthusiasm and they helped in every way his army. From ‘Cingoli’ too, a fortified town which was established by Labienus (100 ca.-45 BC), who had finished the building of it at his own expense, came some ambassadors, who promised they would do everything that He (Caesar) had commanded; he then asked soldiers, and they sent them. "
We have some documents about Citta Della Pieve from the twelfth century when, in a papal Bull of 1181, Pope Lucius III (1100 ca.-1185) granted to Guglielmo, Bishop of Lucca, some privileges. Lucius III, therefore, appointed: "[...] Castrum et curtem Sancti Gervasii cum omnibus quae eam pertinent [...]" ["the fortress and the Court of ‘San Gervasio’, with all its appurtenances"] (See “Memorie e Documenti per Servire all'Istoria di Lucca” [" The Memories and Documents to Serve to the History of Lucca"], Vol. IV, Part II, Lucca, 1836, p. 195). The etymology is typically medieval, and it refers to the concept of a "castrum" ("Fortress"), around which there was a village with his "parish" (Latin "Plebs"), a name under which, in the Middle Ages, precisely the country churches were indicated. The old medieval name of "Città della Pieve" was then "Castrum Plebis" ("Fortress of the Parish Church"); then, when the surrounding village was enlarged to become a "city" (Urbs), there was a change of name, and it, from "Castrum plebis", changed into "Urbs Plebis", translated as “Città della Pieve” [“City of the Parish Church”]. It should be noted that the ancient name of “Castrum Plebis” remained a long time, and that the modern name was assigned to city at the behest of Pope Clement VIII (1535-1605) in the seventeenth century. The activities of Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) as proconsul in Transpadane was very intense, and we know that Cividale, the ancient “Forum Iulii”, was founded by the great Roman leader, along with other cities, as Concordia, for example, in the same area of Friuli. About “Forum Iulii”, in ancient times, we do not have many evidences. Pliny the Elder [23-79 AD] (“Naturalis Historia”, III, 23, 130-131) was very dismissive about the “ X Regio Augustea”, and spoke quickly of “Forum Iulii” and its surroundings, saying that they were places “Quos scrupolosius dicere non attineat” (“about which wasn't the case to say scrupulously”). Even Ptolemy (100-175 AD), the great geographer of the ancient world, was quick to mention Cividale, simply quoting a Roman colony that he called, in Greek, "Foros Isulios”. For more detailed information on "Forum Iulii", which was situated at the point where today there is Cividale, on the right bank of the river Natisone, one must wait for the Lombard period.
The clay of the area around Civita Castellana, and the art of pottery made the economic fortune of the city, from the earliest times (X century BC). Indeed, the archaeological excavations of the necropolis unearthed many materials, documenting a strong presence of art pottery such as vases called pottery clay "mixture", the finest geometric vessels and proto-Corinthian and Attic vases; in fact, in pre-Roman times, “Civita Castellana” was the capital of the “Falisci”, skilled craftsmen, who were specialized in art pottery. The first traces of this civilization come from excavations of the ancient “Falerii Veteres”, which had trade relations with the entire Mediterranean basin.
The ancient name of “Civitavecchia” was “Centumcellae”, the foundation of which, as a port with many warehouses, dating back to 107 AD. behest of Trajan (53-117 AD). Devastated by the Saracens in 828, the city was abandoned by the inhabitants, who fled into nearby woods, founding the city of "Leopolis", but in 889 they returned, changing its name to “Civitas Vetula” [“the Old Town”]. It became part of the Church State in 1431, when it assumed the role of the Rome port and the Papal fleet basis. Go back to that time, the fortifications of the port and arsenal.
Colle di Val d'Elsa is a very old city, probably dating from the Early Middle Ages, although the town was also known with different names from the current one - namely Piticciano and Piticciano Castle. The early history and origins of the town are slightly unclear but the research tells a fascinating story. We do not know precisely when the old village around the castle was born, but certainly around the year 1000, because in a document dating from 1007, the noble Wuilla Aldobrandeschi received certain lands from the Bishop of Volterra, among which Piticciano was mentioned.Other documents mentioning 'Piticcianum' date back to the 12th century. We know from these that Colle di val d'Elsa was rightly called Piticciano, and that from 1183 we know that the city was also called Colle, because, in a Bull of Pope Lucius III (1110-1185), who gave the abbot of “Santa Maria di Spugna” many goods and lands, it was said that some of these assets were close to the 'Castellum Piticcianum quod Colle vocatur'. ie Lucius III wrote that the possessions were close to the “Piticciano Castle, which is called Colle."
The town of Conegliano was born around the 12th century, when a group of noble families established a settlement on a hill around to a pre-existing fortress. The castle became the centre of the local political, military and religious power, with the Palace of the Podestà and the Church of St. Leonardo. In the Middle Ages Conegliano became a very important place politically, based on local agriculture that was run by monks who lived in many monasteries near the town and brought food and hand-made quality products to Conegliano. The 13th century Monastery of Santa Maria Mater Domini (1231) was very powerful economically, as were the Monastery of St. Francis (1231) and the School of Santa Maria of the Battuti (c.1272).
Although doubted for many centuries, archaeological excavations (and linguistic experts) have now shown definitively that Cortona is of Etruscan origin. Cortona is believed to have been a rich and powerful Etruscan town, as demonstrated by the cyclopean walls surrounding the city, still visible in some parts today, The walls are made by huge slabs of superimposed stone. Beside them are the tombs, a magnificent example of which is the so-called 'Cave of Pythagoras' (570 ca.-495 BC) - some of the finds from this cave are now housed in the renovated Etruscan Museum of Cortona.
Founded in the Island of “Fulcheria”, emerged from the marshes of the ancient Lake “Gerundo”, Crema became an important city and a free municipality only in the eleventh century, when Matilda of Canossa ceded it to the Bishop of Cremona. The population of the area can be traced back to the fourth millennium BC, as evidenced by the discovery of artefacts in the Civic Museum of Crema, as fragments of stone, arrowheads and stone axes. The city's origins seem linked, however, the Longobard invasion of the sixth century AD, and in fact there is a legend connected with the advent of the Longobards, which narrates that the foundation of the city dates back to 570 when, with the arrival of the Longobards, the inhabitants of the area took refuge in the highest part of the Island of the “Mosa”, under the command of Cremete and then Fulcherio. From these two founders would result so the place names, "Crema" and "Insula Fulcheria”.
Cremona was born as a simple village inhabited by the Gauls, who worked as ferrymen on the Po River. Because of its geographical position as a major transit point Cremona drew the attention of the Romans, who turned the small village into an important regional centre. It was founded around 219 B.C., and was inhabited by nearly 6000 Romans who took advantage of the fertility of the soil and at the same time used the location to control the Celtic populations (the Boi and Cenomani Gauls) that were penetrating inside the Empire. The city always enjoyed the confidence of Rome and it also had a legislative autonomy with its own Senate. Around 190 B.C. thousands more Roman farmers settled in the city and relations with Rome became even more friendly, because Cremona had aided the Romans against the Gauls and also against Hannibal. Around 89 B.C. Cremona became "Municipium" and its inhabitants obtained Roman citizenship.
The ancient name of Fabriano was “Faberius”. We note that the origins date back to the twelfth century AD, and thus to the Middle Ages; however, some scholars have noted that "Faberius" was a noble name, and, according to the documents, it referred to a "Gens Faberia”, who had his landholdings in the area of Fabriano. "[...] It was also a “Gens Romana que [sic] nomen suum fortasse a Faber [...]"; or, it “was a Roman family that probably derives her name from 'smiths'”, i.e. the trade of blacksmith. Thus, the etymology of "Faberius-Fabriano" mean simply "smith". For more, it "is probably the same 'Faberius' possessed a considerable area of the “Giano” River Valley [where is located Fabriano], where similar or identical names are repeated" (See “Atti del XXI Convegno di Studi Storici Maceratesi: Macerata, 15-16 novembre 1986, Centro di Studi Storici Maceratesi, 1989, p. 8). ["Proceedings of the XXI Congress of Historical Studies of Macerata: Macerata 15-16 November 1986, Centre for Historical Studies of Macerata, 1989, p. 8)].
Faventia (now Faenza) first arises in Roman times, when it was built on the Via Aemilia (187 BC), although archaeological excavations have shown that the site was inhabited in prehistoric times. History of FaenzaFaenza was built by the Romans according to the classic 'centuriation', i.e. by dividing the countryside into square blocks about 700 metres along each side. The seat of civilian life in the city (the Town Hall, Market and craft shops) is at the centre of the centuriation. During the Roman Empire, some significant measures for agriculturetook place in Faenza; and until the Second Century AD, the city enjoyed a prosperous life, made up of activities related to agriculture and industrial ceramics.
The ancient "Fanum" is located at the mouth of Metauro River Valley. The literary and epigraphic Roman sources about Fano are numerous today, but the first in an absolute sense to talk of the town was Julius Caesar [100-44 BC] (“Bellum Civile”, 1, 12, 4), during the passage of the Rubicon River and his military operations in Central Italy: "[...] Itaque ab Arimino M. Antonium cum cohortibus V at Arretium mittit; Arimino ipse cum duabus [legionibus] subsistit; … Pisanum, Fanum, Anconam singulis cohortibus occupat [...]" - "So he sent Marco Antonio from Rimini to Arezzo with five cohorts. Instead, he stopped at Rimini with two legions, … occupying Pesaro, Fano and Ancona with a single cohort by city ". Caesar, as we see, quoting the city name, calls it "Fanum", but its full name was "Fanum Fortunae," or the "Temple of Fortune."
The settlement of Feltre arose to the west of the Piave River in the Belluna Valley. It has been inhabited since ancient times and possibly has Etruscan origins; but according to the the Roman Pliny the Elder (23 - 79 AD), it was always a fortified city - an Oppidum founded by the Rhetic people that subsequently became a Roman Municipium, of great importance for communications, because it was in contact, through the Via Claudia Augusta with the Brenner region. There are few routes that cross the mountains here and those that do often gained strategic importance. In the medieval period Feltre suffered invasions from various defeats, including the Goths and the Longobards) then later, between the 13th and 14th centuries, it was occupied by various and powerful Italian seignoiries (ruling families) such as the Da Camino, Da Romano, Carraresi, and Visconti.
Ferentino is located north of the province of “Frosinone”, about 400 meters above sea level. Since ancient times it has maintained its name, “Ferentinum”, which, according to some scholars, derives its etymology from the Latin verb "fero-ferre", which means " to produce", reflecting the fertility of its soil. Indeed, taking into account its geographical position, the etymology would seem to have good fundamentals. G. Semerano does arise, however, the name from "Lucus Ferentinae", i.e. a wood ("Lucus") surrounding the sacred spring of water called “Ferentina”. The Sacred Wood was the venue for confederated peoples of Latium (See G. Semerano, “The Origins of European Culture”, Olschki, 1984, Vol. II, p. 850).
Fermo, harmoniously arranged on the sides of “Sabùlo” Hill, Marche, was a place of settlement dating back to the Iron Age. According to G. Buti and G. Devoto, the transition of Picenum to Iron Age is marked by new funeral rites of cremation, of proto-Villanovan type, characterized by the presence of “[…] urns shaped like a cylinder… We find a continuation of this type, very clearly proto-Villanovan, in the cremation tombs of Fermo, which now is ascribed to the eighth century BC […]” (See G. Buti-G. Devoto, “Preistoria e Storia delle Regioni d’Italia” [“Prehistory and history of the Italy regions”], Florence, Sansoni, 1974, pp. 85-86 ).
Foligno, the old "Fulginium", is situated in a fertile valley at the foot of Apennines, near the confluence of Topino and Menotre ( a tributary of Topino River). The city, remembered by many Roman writers (Cato [234-149 BC], Cicero [106-43 BC], Caesar [100-44 BC] and Pliny the Elder [23-79 AD]), developed significantly only after the Roman conquest. The territory of "Fulginates" (Pliny the Elder) was Romanized from the beginning of the third century BC (295), and, on this subject, a question arose in the past about the site of ancient city, as it was thought that it was just moved farther north, but, apparently, and as indeed some historians have asserted in the eighteenth century, the site seems to be the same. During Roman age Foligno was a Confederate city, before "Municipium" and then "Prefecture", and it had some commercial importance, because it crossed by a branch of the “Via Flaminia”.
The first settlements in the territory of Gaeta date back to eighth century BC. About the etymology there have been several hypotheses; the older derives its name from "Caieta", mentioned by Virgil [70-19 BC] (' Aeneid ', 7, 1), and the nurse of Aeneas, from the Greek "Kaien" ("burn"), because the Trojans set fire to the ships of Aeneas. [See V. Teti, “Storia dell'acqua: mondi materiali e universi simbolici” [“History of water: physical worlds and symbolic universes”], Donzelli, 2003: 75, footnote 20]. Of course, contemporary proposals indicate the origin of the Latin name "Caieta" from a typical feature of the site where is located the city.
History of GlorenzaBeyond the name, poetic and of rustic flavour, Glorenza is a real City-Fortress, with a rectangular plan, surrounded by walls of great magnificence, which reaches about seven feet tall and nearly two thick. The area was fiercely fought over in the Middle Ages between the powerful family of the Matsch and the Bishopric of Coira; moreover, the Bishop of Coira, in the thirteenth century, built two castles, the "Fürstemburg" and "Castel Coira" near Glurns. The history of Glurns is probably of pre-Roman origins and it was originally inhabited by Illyrian people; then Drusus (38-9 BC) conquered the territory in 15 BC. For nearly three centuries, from the beginning of the thirteenth century to the late fifteenth century, the history of Glurns was that of disputes between the Counts of Tyrol and the Bishops of Coira. The city's place was important as a market for transit to the Grisons, soon becoming the economic capital and the military stronghold of the Valley. In 1499 the city suffered heavy destruction by the Swiss confederates, who inflicted a heavy defeat to the emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg (1459-1519). The war, which ended a few months later with the Peace of Basle, and sanctioned the independence of Switzerland, led to the separation of Grisons from Empire and it led the interruption of trade between Tyrol and Engadina, which passed through Glurns. Risen between 1555 and 1580 with the construction of the present walls, the city continued its thriving business based on the exchange of goods, which were stored in special rooms overlooking the “Laubengasse” or “Via dei Portici”. Glurns retains intact its medieval urban structure, with seven towers, three gates and a massive wall that surrounds it completely, and today its economy is based primarily on tourism. EtymologyThe city appears first documented around 1294, as “Burgum Glurns” (See Reiner Lose, “Der Vinschgau und seine Nachbarräume”, Athesia Verlagsanstalt, 1993, p. 29). As Regards the etymology, certainly a valid interpretation is that proposed by S. Marseiler (“Glorenza-Glurns, the Smallest Town in Alto Adige”, Lana, Tappeiner, 1998). Marseiler notes that Glorenza was called “[…] ‘Glurnis’, ‘Glurne’, ‘Glurens’; the origin of the name is pre-Roman or retro-romance and it would mean ‘flood bed of the alders or hazels’ […]”. Moreover, it was noted the similarity with the city name of "Glori," the meaning of which should be derived from a possible Greek root “Koris” (“verdant”) or, more likely, from the Latin “Corylus” (“hazel”), indicating that once the area was rich in hazels. (See. A. Gandolfo, “Glori”, in “The Province of Imperia”, Blu Editions, 2005).
The emergence of Grado was told us by Paul the Deacon (720-799 AD), who, after saying that “non longe ab Aquileia Gradus Insula est” (“The island of Grado is located not far from Aquileia”), continues: “[.. .] Paulus (Episcopus) Langobardorum barbariem metuens ex Aquileia ad Gradum Insulam confugit secumque omnem suæ Thesaurum ecclesiae deportavit [...]” (or, “Bishop Paul, fearing the wrath of Longobards, escaped from Aquileia to the island of Grado, carrying the treasure of his church”) [See, G. Bovini, “Grado Paleocristiana” [“Early Christian Grado”], Patron, 1973: 2, 8]. Grado, therefore, came from a “rib” of Aquileia, the inhabitants of which, terrified by the invasions of barbarians, sought refuge in the Venetian lagoons; after all, the birth of Grado is absolutely similar to that of Venice.
The discovery, in 1444, of the so-called "Tabulae Iguvinae" ["bronze plates"], which were expertly illustrated by Giacomo Devoto, was essential for the interpretation of ancient Gubbio, which the Romans called "Iguvium". The "Tabulae" offered some important data from a historical, religious and linguistic point of view. Meanwhile, one of the problems that arose was whether, with regard to the ancient Gubbio, it is permissible to speak of a "city", or simply of a "fortress". Supporters of Gubbio as "city" base their claims by referring to the "gates" of ancient urban structure. Scholars unfavourable rightly have pointed out that the reference to "gates" is not sufficient to identify Gubbio as a city, because the old "Arx" ("Fortress"), of course, had its gates, which, indeed, are constitutive of a castle.
The place of Ivrea was formerly colonized by the “Salassi”, a people who lived the present “Canavese” and “Valle d'Aosta”, whose main activities were the mining of iron, copper, gold and silver. Since they occupied a strategic step on the way towards Gaul, the Romans moved a victorious war against the “Salassi” and, in 100 BC, they founded “Eporedia”, which then became “municipium”. As regards the etymology, the question is undoubtedly complex, but the best hypothesis is that proposed by G.B. Pellegrini, who writes: "[...] ‘Eporedia-Ivrea’ is attested by classical authors and inscriptions (PID 311 Tab. Med. 64), for example by Tacitus [56-117 AD] (Hist. 1, 70), Cicero [196-43 BC] , "Ad Familiares”, XI, 20, Pliny the Elder [23-79 AD] , III, 123, Strabo [58-25 BC approx.], IV, 6, 7, CIL V 6777) . The city is certainly a Celtic settlement (...) A first response is the Gaulish personal name "Epo-redo-rix" (...) and the Latin term "redarius' (" Driver of a 'reda'), and the 'reda' was a popular Gallic vehicle. And, we must note that 'eporediae' were the 'boni equorum domitores' ("the capable horse trainers"); the term derives, thus, from the word therefore 'epo' (i.e. 'horse'), cf. the Latin word "equus".
The western Lake Garda has been inhabited since prehistoric times, a fact proven by a bilingual inscription found near Tremosine that testifies that both the Ligurians and then the Etruscans lived here Next the Lake was conquered by the Cenomani Gauls, and later again by the Romans. The first Latin group of which we know something is the so-called "Benacenses", that probably took the name from the Garda Lake, at that time known as Benacus.
About Loreto we have a secure document of the twelfth century, but some scholars suggest other sources of the early eleventh century (1018). On top of Mount Prodo, there was a church, dedicated to Saint Mary; in a document of 1193 the church and its assets were donated by Jordan, Bishop of “Umana”, the Monastery of “Fonte Avellana”: "[...] In Nomine Dei Anno eius sunt ab incarnatione Domini Jesu Christi MCLXXXXIII (1193) ... Concedimus in perpetuo in heremo Fontis Avellanae et tibi dopno (i.e.“domino”) Marco venerabile priori ... Ecclesiam Sancte (ae) Marie (ae) que (quae) est sita in fundo Laureti [...]"; ie, "In the name of God, in the year 1193 from the Incarnation of Our God Jesus Christ ... We always concede to the monastery of Fonte Avellana and you, Marco, venerable Prior ... the Church of Saint Mary of Loreto, which is located in the ‘fundus’ of Loreto ... "(This document is contained in G. Cappelletti, “Le Chiese d'Italia dalla loro origine fino ai giorni nostri” [“The Churches of Italy from their origin to the present day”], 1848, p. 90). Loreto was therefore indicated in the documents as "fundus ("farm") Laureti" and, as explains G. Cappelletti, "that church ... and the parish were called 'Sancta Maria de Laureto' or 'in Laureto'. "
The origins of Mantua (Mantova) date back to 1000 BC when it was founded by the Etruscans. It was later occupied by the Gauls and Romans and it is here in Pietole Mantovano that Virgil, one of the greatest Latin poets, was born. We have little information about the Early Middle Ages: in 603 A.D. Mantua was attacked by Agilulf, and in the 8th century, under the reign of Charles the Great, it became an earldom. One of the most famous and powerful feudal families of Mantua was the Canossa, who ruled from 977 to 1115. The most distinguished representative of the dynasty of the Canossa was Matilda (1046-1115). After the defeat of the Countess Matilda of Canossa at the battle of Rivalta in the 12th century Mantua became a municipality.
We know for certain that the town of Massa Marittima stood here by the 10th century, and archaeological excavations have shown that the area surrounding the city is of ancient settlement. The name, "Massa Marittima", has its roots in the Latin "Mansus," a term that refers to the verb "manere", or " to dress", “to dwell”; the name is similar to many other Italian towns, such as “Massa Carrara” and “Massa Lombarda”. The second term, "Marittima", obviously refers to the classic "Maremma" Tuscany, a green place and formerly covered with water and swamps. In fact, according to some scholars, the words "Marittima", despite its undoubted Latin origin ( "Maritime"), would have many affinities with the Spanish term "marismas", which means "swamp". The overall name thus describes an "inhabited village" near the marshes, namely the "Maremma". Massa Marittima was initially ruled by the bishop and, from the first half of the thirteenth century (1225), it became a municipality, with a lively and active economic life, due to activities linked to the exploitation of mines. The wealth of the city naturally attracted the ambitions of other powerful cities of Tuscany, like Pisa and Siena, resulting in Siena conquering Massa Marittima. The years that followed the conquest of the city were substantially years of decline, but it recovered when it passed to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, as the mines were reactivated and the reclamation of swampy land resumed. The town passed to the Kingdom of Italy with national unification. History of MeranoMerano is an ancient city of Roman times, known as "Statio Maiensis' (“station”, “borderland Maia”). Due to its strategic location, the village became an important merchant town, and in the thirteenth century Merano became the capital of County, and the seat of a famous Mint. In the second half of the fourteenth century, the Habsburgs-Tyrol moved the ducal seat to Innsbruck , and this coincided with a period of decline of the city, exacerbated by the floods that affected it several times. A major urban transformation was carried out in the nineteenth century; however, the works not compromised the old city, the centre of which is the ideal Gothic cathedral, dedicated to St. Nicholas. The mild climate, clean air and the presence of mineral springs antiquity caused that this area was known and appreciated for its natural characteristics. The tourist activity, linked above all to the thermal baths, began in the early nineteenth century. The mineral water, which flows from Mount St. Virgil, and that is the basis of thermal treatments applied in Merano, has therapeutic qualities for the osteo-arthritis and many pathologies of the osteo-muscular apparatus. EtymologyThey told that, in the Later Middle Ages, the city was also known with the name of "Castrum Maiense", located in "Maia, près de Meran" [“Maia, near Merano”] (See Louise Fresco, “Le Haute Adige-Tyrol de Sud” , Editions des Cahiers de l'Alpe" 1988:110). Merano is attested in some documents only by 857 AD, under the names "Mairania", "Mairanio", "Mairani" and finally "Merano" (1251). In the early Middle Ages it belonged to the Counts of Venosta, who became then Counts of Tyrol, who referred to the Bishop of Trent. As regards the etymology, there is substantial agreement among scholars, for whom the name derives from the family name "Marius", accompanied by the suffix “-anum”, indicating the property. In conclusion, Meran would mean "place belonging to Marius" (See P. Passarelli, “The Towns of Italy”, Trentino Alto Adige, Italian Encyclopedic Institute, 2007: 74) An interesting hypothesis was formulated in the nineteenth century by Alber Gatschet (“Ortsetymologische Forschungen” [“Etymological Research about Places”], Haller, 1867: 304), who observed that the name “Merano”, for a series of the name transformations would mean "shepherds huts": "[...] Meran, stadt in Sudtyrol (''in valle tridentina in loco qui dicitur 'Mairania' 857, (...) 'Villam que vocatur Magelisis', 933 Hist. Patr., Mon. II, § 50 (...) den Ausdruck 'magalia' erklart Ducange durch ' tuguria seu domus pastorum '”; or “Merano, a city of South Tyrol ( located in the Trentino valley called 'Magelisis'). L 'expression "Magalia", according to Du Cange, is explained as ' shepherds huts'”]. When Chalcidian from the island of Euboea founded a colony at Zancle on the Sicilian coast of today's Messina Strait around 730 BC the area was already inhabited by indigenous peoples, from whom probably comes the name of Zancle, which means sickle, for the shape of the promontory on which their village stood. In the first half of the fifth century, the city fell into the hands of the tyrant of Reggio, Anassilaos (500 c.-476 B.C.). That led to a number of Dorians settlers from Messenia settling in the city, who came to prevail over Chalcidian - it is 'Messeni', therefore, that we owe the new name of the city, Messana - today Messina. During the struggles between Greek cities, Messina was subjected to the tyranny of Agathocles (360-289 B.C.), and at his death, to the occupation by the so-called Mamertini who gave the city to the Romans in 264 BC. The Greek city probably stretched between the Zaera and Portalegni rivers, on the slopes of the Gonzaga, Castellaccio and Victory Tower hills, but the ruins are difficult to identify.
The name Mirandola comes from 'Mirandula' from the Latin mirari (to watch attentively). Historically, this ancient walled city played a very important role because its strategic location, attracting the attention of both the great medieval lords and of the Church State. In the twelfth century it belonged to the powerful family of Countess Matilda of Canossa (1046-1115) and it was later a secular domain of the Pico Family, very famous in Italy for being the native town of Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), the eminent humanist with an exceptional memory and culture. Of Lombard origin, the Pico family exercised important offices in Modena and Reggio. During the twelfth century Pico, the founder of the dynasty, was Podestà of Reggio while Francesco Pico was Podestà of Modena in the early fourteenth century. He obtained the fiefdom and the 'Pieve of Quarantoli' from Emperor Henry VII (1275-1313), making Mirandola the capital of the Duchy, dominated by the castle of the Pico, which was already well established in the early fourteenth century.
The etymology of the name of the city of Mondovi has its roots in the Latin "Mons Vicus" ["Mountain Village"]. According to G..B. Pellegrini, around 1214, it was called "Monte de Vico" and then it was also called "Royal Mount", or "mountain belonging to the royal domain” (See G.B. Pellegrini, "Italian toponymy", Milan, Hoepli, 1990: 235).
Montagnana is built on the site of an ancient prehistoric settlement dating from the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Later, the Romans made it a "castrum" fortified to defend the bridge over the Adige River, which was a major meeting point of the famous 'Via Emilia Altinate' that linked Modena and Altino. The Latin name of 'Motta Aeniana' comes from the fact that the settlements were on some "motte" (little hills), while the term 'Aeniana' refers to the ancient Roman road called 'Annia', another name for the Via Emilia Altinate. Between the ninth and tenth centuries the city began to take form around a castle, and by the twelfth century had become a fortified town contended by the great Lords of the time: the Marquis of Tuscany, the Obertenghi and Estes. Around the middle of the 12th century Montagnana became a Municipality.
The town of Montefalco, from its hill, overlooks the plain, which stretches from Spoleto to Perugia. Montefalco was inhabited in ancient times by Umbrian people and probably it also suffered Etruscan influences. Later it was subjected by the Romans, who built many villas. We found this in the place-names as Camiano, Rignano Cortignano and Vecciano, which, in fact, derive from the names of noble families (the presence of the suffix "-anus" implies precisely the idea of ownership). In Roman times the territory was administered by "Municipium of “Mevania” (Bevagna). After the fall of Roman Empire, on remains of Roman villas, several settlements were born, which then were fortified by the Lombards. One of these sites was really Montefalco, which, in late Middle Ages, however, was called “Coccorone”.
The origin of Montepulciano dates back to a remote era; according to tradition it was founded by the Etruscan King Porsenna in the 6th century BC. Others have identified that on this mountain stood a place called "Arretium Fidens" and yet others "Novum Clusium", spoken of by Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD). Many Etruscan and Roman finds have been made in this district confirming its great antiquity. The name dates from later, and is perhaps unknown until the beginning of the eighth century, when it appears in a document dating to 715 by King Liutprando (690 ca.-744).
The origins of Monza are very old, and they recall a time when the Celtic invaders sent away the Etruscans from Northern Italy. Apart from a few finds of the Bronze Age, we have not local archaeological evidences, except for the following period, when local people met with the Roman Civilization. We have over twenty tombstones of Roman times, which indicate the time when Monza was a "Vicus" ("Village") of the tribe of "Modiciates"; among these, of particular importance are the inscriptions of the Altar dedicated to Hercules, mentioned in inscriptions as "Hercules Modicianus" and ascribed to some young aristocrats taking part of a "Collegium" funeral-religious. The city is mentioned in the inscriptions with the name "Modicia" and also that of "Modoetia", because the two names reciprocated from the tenth century.
The earliest history of Naples is surrounded by a great deal of uncertainty, due to the lack of both a literary tradition and a clear evidence of archaeological finds. Two names are associated with the Naples of antiquity: one is Paleòpolis (meaning the "old town" and perhaps it can be identified with Partenope, which was born near the "Bay of Cuma", the Gulf of Naples was then known) and the other is Neapolis ( or "New City"). This demonstrates the existence of two separate towns. Some scholars believe that both these towns were of Greek origin, while others maintain that the oldest existed in the pre-Greek age. In any case, the so-called Old Town seems to have been founded around 650 BC by some Greek colonists of Chalcis and Eretria who came nearby Cumae, where they had already been established for a century or so.
Orvieto is a very ancient city, the area of which was inhabited since the Iron Age, then dominated by the Etruscans with the name “Velzna”. The antiquity of the city is well attested by the name of medieval origin, "Urbs Vetus," or "Old Town", to remember, indeed, the old “Velzna”, which was located in an area virtually inaccessible, and of equipped with more powerful fortifications. "Velzna" was a rich city, due to the fact that it controlled the river communications between Etruria and Rome. Many Latin writers remembered its power and wealth, such as Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD), who called it "Oppidum Tuscorum opulentissimum" (“Rich fortified city of the Etruscans”), and Valerius Maximus (first century AD), who considered “Volsinii Veteres” “Caput Etruriae” ( “Capital of Etruria”). According to most reliable studies, the etymology of “Velzna” (Latinized in “Volsinii”), has its roots in the Etruscan “Vels”, refers to a noble, and it means “belonging to Vels”, and hence the term refers to the possessions belonging to this Etruscan family (See M. Cristofani, “Siena: le Origini. Testimonianze e miti archeologici” [“Siena: Origins. Some Evidences and archaeological myths”], Olschki, 1979, p. 4). In medieval times there was a new flowering of the city, which became, between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries, one of the most powerful Italian Cities with strong expansionist ambitions, which led the city to struggle very hard against the neighbouring towns, as Siena, Viterbo and Perugia. Orvieto instead maintained a firm alliance with the powerful Florence, and this increased its prestige and well-being, becoming the favourite residence, especially in the fourteenth century, of the Popes and the Papal Court. Like many Italian cities, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Orvieto was in the middle of bloody battles among the powerful families of the city, particularly between the Family of Filippeschi and Monaldeschi, though eventually it became part of the Church State, under the rule of which it remained until the unification of Italy (1861). Today the economic development of Orvieto is based almost exclusively on tourism, as the city's artistic heritage, both the Etruscan and for the art treasures of the cathedral, dedicated to the Assumption, to which the best artists of Italy participated in building it. Within the territory of the ancient "Latium" (etymologically "vast plain"), the area, ie, between the Tiber River to the north, Lepini Mountains south, the sea to the west and the pre-Apennines mountains to the east, Palestrina, the Latin name of which was "Praeneste", occupies a position of considerable strategic importance from top of the mountain; surrounded by powerful walls, the city could control the valley of the Sacco River, a nodal point for communications between Etruria and Campania, a region where the Etruscans had some rich settlements. The inhabitants of "Praeneste" bring in, throughout their history, this location in the best way, as evidenced by the monuments and the valuable archaeological finds in the city and surrounding territory. The ancient myths attribute the founding of the city to different characters.
The ancient history of Pavia dates back to prehistoric times. The city was born not far from the confluence of the Ticino River into the Po River and it was here that first the Ligurians, then the Celtics and later the Gauls chose to settle (the gauls in the 4th century BC). The settlement was at that stage called Ticino, after the name of the nearby river. The Romans conquered the town in the 2nd century BC while maintaining its name, Ticinum. For its geographical position and the importance of land and river traffic routes (the important 'Via Emilia' passed west of Pavia), the Romans always held Pavia in high esteem. As a result the town was first made a 'Municipium' and then its inhabitants achieved Roman citizenship.
The name Pienza is relatively recent, but the town stands on an older development, probably of Roman or Etruscan origin, which was called Corsignano. In 12th century the town was listed as Cursinianum (the suffix '-anum' refers to a landed property, belonging to a family called Corsinius). Pienza, however, is a new city established by Pope Pius II, ie the great humanist Enea Silvio Piccolomini (1405-1464), who was born here.
Pietrasanta is a medieval town situated in the popular and attractive Italian region of Tuscany. Pietrasanta has its origins in the Middle Ages, when the town developed around a Lombard castle and had a fascinating medieval history. In 13th century Tuscany the rulers of the city of Lucca pursued an active policy of subjugating the territories that surrounded them, especially in Versilia. This of course led to a great deal of confrontation with the the local feudal lords, and also ongoing confrontations with the other important cities in the region, such as Pisa.
We observe first that the history of the origins of Recanati is today, despite the progress of history and language studies, a significant problem of interpretation. The only fact is that the name "Recanati" is attested in a document dating back to 1139, when Pope Innocent II (died September 24, 1143) confirmed some property rights to the monastery of “Fonte Avellana”, naming for the first time in history a church, called "Santa Maria di Recanati [sic]." The document in question, taken from “Camaldolesi Annals”, year 1139, so it said: "[...] Ecclesiam Sancte(ae) Mariae de ‘Recanato’ cum aliis Ecclesiis earumque pertinentiis [...]". I.e., "[We grant the Monastery] the Church of “Santa Maria di 'Recanati', with other churches and all their appurtenances." This ancient document has been handed down to us, and of course, from ancient sources, including Count Monaldo Leopardi (1776-1847) , Giacomo's (1798-1837) father, who had written a “History of Recanati” (See Monaldo Leopardi, “Serie dei Vescovi di Recanati, con alcune notizie della città e della Chiesa di Recanati”, ["Series of Bishops of Recanati, with some city news and the Church of Recanati], Recanati, G. Murici, 1828, p. 46, footnote 1).
Saluzzo is mentioned for the first time in 1028, in a document in which it is quoted as a "castrum" belonging to the Marquis of Turin, Olderico Manfredi (10th century) of the “Arduinici” family. However, some scholars, according to archaeological remains from Roman times, have suggested that Saluzzo was an area of ancient settlement, probably dating from the Iron Age. The hypothesis about the etymology of Saluzzo are conflicting, and so we have not unequivocal solutions, although in some cases very similar. We show here the most credible hypothesis, the first of which asserts that Saluzzo derives from the word "Sales", with reference to the “Salii”, a Ligurian people, and “hutum” ("hut", “cabin”), for which Saluzzo indicates “the Salii’s huts” or “Village of the Salii” (See G.. Gerbotto, “Saluzzo e dintorni: guida storico-artistica e turistica”, Saluzzo, 1970 [G.. Gerbotto, "Saluzzo and Surroundings: Art History and Tourist Guide”, Saluzzo, 1970])..
It was an important centre for trade from the time of its birth as a village near the end the tenth century (988).Many legends are told of the origins of the city, but it is very probable that the ancient San Gimignano was founded in the sixth and seventh century around a church dedicated to San Gimignano, who became the patron saint of the town, and also around Saint Gimignano Castle (also known as the Castello della Selva or 'Castle of the Wood'). In 929 Hugh, King of Italy from 880-948, gave the Bishop of Volterra a town called Monte della Torre that belonged, for many centuries, to the Bishop of Volterra, under whose rule the city grew in terms of buildings (the construction of the Collegiate) and economically because of its strategic geographical position along the Via Francigena. From the early thirteenth century San Gimignano became a Municipality away from the power of the bishop. Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries it improved the city walls, present since its foundation, by which San Gimignano was accessed by three gates (the St. Matthew, St. John and Fountain Gates)
Thanks to the scholar’s studies dating back to the eighteenth, we are now able to reconstruct fairly accurately the historical phases of San Leo, which has often often changed its name over the centuries. In the case of San Leo, studying the hisitory of the name tells us the history of the city.
The first mention of a place called "San Severino" is in a document (944 AD) of Bishop Eudone: "[...] Ego Eudo ... Episcopus in honore Beate (ae ) Marie (ae ) Virginis, et omnium caelestium agminum in Castello qui dicitur Sanctum Severinum ... c(o)epi fundamento (a)edificare ecclesiam pro redemptionem animarum [...]"; i.e.: "I, Eodone, Bishop, in honour of the Blessed Virgin Mary and all souls of saints, have built foundations of a church in Castle that is called ‘San Severino’ for the salvation of souls ... "(the document is in Giuseppe Colucci, “Delle Antichità Picene” ["About the Antiquities of Piceno"], Appendix of documents, Document No. II, Fermo, 1790, Volume VIII, p. III).
In medieval times Sansepolcro was known as "Burgus Sancti Sepulchri" (“Sansepolcro Village”), due to the fact that two holy pilgrims, Arcanio and Egidio, coming from the Holy Land, founded a church-chapel here to house in it the many relics they had found in the "Tomb of Christ". According to other sources, much debated, it seems that the ancient name of the Village was Biturgia, and that it was here that Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) had his sumptuous villa. Over the centuries there has been much discussion over whether Sansepolcro may or may not be the old “Biturgia”, which Ptolemy (90-168) placed among towns in Tuscany nearest to Umbria. Even today there is much uncertainty on the assumption that Sansepolcro corresponds exactly to the ancient settlement founded by the "Bituriges" Gauls (from whose name is derived "Biturgia"). Contemporary archaeological studies near Sansepolcro would suggest rather a "Roman settlement".
The archaeological remains show that Sarzana was inhabited since the Neolithic, but the early history of the city is virtually unknown, and there are a little documentation sources. We know that, at the end of thirteenth century, it appeared as a walled village, which included an ancient tower, which had the "castrum" genuine, and the most recently Archbishopric. Sarzana is first mentioned in a document of 965 of Emperor Otto III (980-1002), in which the “Castrum Sarzanae”, located where now stands the fortress of “Sarzanello”, was recognized as a possession to the Bishop of Luni; in it Sarzana was mentioned as a simple castle, called “Castrum de Sarzana”.
Of ancient Etruscan origin (dating from the 7th century BC), the original settlement here stood on an elevated plain, with very steep slopes and shaped by the two streams that flow around it, the "Folonia" and “Picciolana”. To the east, where the slope was gentler and allowed an easier climb to the hill and the city the Etruscans built a powerful defensive wall surrounded by a wide moat.
Spello is located on Mount Subasio, not far from Assisi, known much more of it. But the old Roman "Hispellum" has an illustrious history too. It was an ancient city of Umbrians, known to Greeks and Latins historians and geographers; Strabo (58-25 ca. BC) calls it “Eispellon”, and Ptolemy (90-168 AD) “Ispellon”. Spello was also a Roman “Municipium” mentioned by Latin writers, as Silius Italicus (26 ca.-101 AD), who mentions it among the cities that provided soldiers to the Romans, engaged in the Second Punic War (218-201 BC), and also Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) made some notes in Spello, describing it as "Colonia Julia Hispellum", since it was refunded by Augustus (63 BC-14 AD), who was responsible for the construction of walls and “thermae”. The city, in an document of Emperor Constantine (274 ca.-337), who granted it the privilege of erecting a temple to "Gens Flavia," called it "Flavia Constans," while in some medieval documents dating from the ninth century AD, it was called “Spellatensis Urbs”, hence the Italian place-name “Spello”.
The origins of Spoleto, located along the slopes of the hill St. Elias, date back to the late Bronze Age, as some remains of the necropolis, found in the perimeter of the city, show. In the fifth and fourth centuries BC the Umbrians occupied the territory, and the city became a "castrum" (Fortress), with the construction of the so-called “Cyclopean walls”, made of huge blocks of polygonal limestone. Spoleto in 241 BC became a colony, and it was built by the Romans, to the merits of loyalty, to the rank of “Municipium”. In fact, Spoleto showed loyalty to Rome, especially during the Second Punic War, opposing with a value to the army of Hannibal (247-182 BC), who advanced to Rome, after defeating the Romans at the Battle of Lake Trasimeno. Indeed, Cicero (106-43 BC) called "Spoletinam Coloniam in primis firmam et inlustrem" [Cicero defined the colony of Spoleto strong and illustrious] (Severus Minervius, see below).
Founding of SybarisSybaris was the first and by far the most important of the colonies founded by the Dorians on the coast of southern Italy. The foundation of the town is traditionally dated around 720 BC (according to Pseudo-Scimno [III century]) or 708 B.C. (according to Eusebius [III-IV century]), but it is likely that we should really go back to around 750 B.C., since by 700 BC, the Sybarites had established a settlement of about 300,000 inhabitants and an important power base which included, among many other colonies, that of Posidonia (also known as Paestum), a city that lies at the mouth of the Silarus river (today 'Sele'), on the Tyrrhenian coast of Lucania. Paestum - a Sybaris ColonyIn the early seventh century B.C. Posidonia was renowned for its city walls that followed a pentagonal plan, and extended over four miles, interspersed with square towers and four gates: certainly the most magnificent example of fortification that has reached us of all the Greek cities of Southern Italy. The fame of Posidonia is also, and above all, linked to its three temples: the Temple of Hera (mid-sixth century B.C.), the temple of Ceres-Athens (late sixth century B.C.), and the temple of Poseidon (mid fifth century B.C.).
Around 733 BC Doric populations originating from Corinth, led by the oecist Archias, founded Syracuse in Sicily on the islet of Ortigia, where there already existed a nucleus of Sicilians. The etymology of the name Syracuse is uncertain: it seems that the name derives from "Sirokos" (the Sirocco wind), or, more likely, from "Sirakousai" (the "Salt Water") or, perhaps more likely, the name might come from Syraka, which was the marsh between the Anapo and Cyane Rivers. Some scholars, however, argue that the name is in reality of Phoenician origin, signifying The Rock of Sea-gulls.
The colony of 'Taras' was founded around 705-706 B.C. (although some scholars believe it dates from even earlier, around 800 BC), when some Spartans settled here. Taras (later Taranto) was destined to become one of the most famous cities of 'Magna Graecia' (the Greater Greece Empire). Taras was probably the name of the place where the settlers arrived, which was already occupied by pre-existing Italic peoples called the Japigi, who, according to Thucydides (460-404 B.C.) and Strabo (58 c.-25 c. B.C.), named the place in honour of Taras, the son of Poseidon ( Neptune) and the nymph Satyria (Taras is widely represented on ancient coins of Taranto, called Nummus).
Recent discoveries of Archeology go back in Tarquinia to a very ancient time. In the past, scholars believed that the city dated back to the seventh century BC, but, apparently, it should go further back in time, even to the ninth-tenth century BC, as some type of “Villanovian” tombs have been identified. Scholars agree in recognizing Tarquinia in the ancient Etruscan city of “Tarchna" or "Tarchuna", the etymology of which refers to the noble “Tarquinius”. There is general agreement on this etymology, though some scholars (See G. de Santis, “Scritti minori”, Ediz. di storia e Letteratura, 1970: 342) has raised some concern, because, in his opinion, "Tarchna" should be traslated into Latin as “Tarqui-t-ius”, and not “Tarqui-n –ius”; however, the relation "Tarchna"-"Tarqui-n-ius" is generally accepted. Tarquinia is located about 200 meters above sea level in Maremma ( Latium), near Viterbo.
The area of Terracina was formerly inhabited by the Etruscans in the sixth century BC, and later by the Volsci. The etymology of Terracina seems to have its roots in the Etruscan word "Tarchna" or "Tarchuna", which is a family name, "the same name of Tarquin" (See AA.VV., "Circeo, Terracina and Fondi", Institute Polygraphic State Library, 1966, p. 12). Under the Romans rule, in the first decades of the second century BC, were built many paved streets, temples of marble, with columns and statues, villas, shrines, oracles, and also the impressive acropolis, the temple of “Jupiter Anxur” on Mount St.Angel.
Todi, the ancient “Tuder”, is situated on a hill about 400 meters above sea level, between the rivers Naja and Rio, tributaries of the Tiber. In pre-Roman period, Todi was the most powerful fortress city of the Umbrias ("In umbris Tuder sunt principes" ["The ‘Tudertini’ are the first among the Umbrians" (Cato [243-149 BC])], in defending their territory, a difficult area, bordering on the Etruscans. In this sense, as a border area with Etruria, the etymology of the city is explained with one accord by all scholars, who interpret the name "Tuder" as "border town". "[.. .] Todi (‘Tuder’) seems to reflect the Umbro-Etruscan term 'Tular-Tuder', 'border' [...]" (See “Archivio Glottologico Italiano”, Florence, Le Monnier, 1983, Vol. 68-71, p. 149). According to the studies, despite the strenuous defence of the Umbrias, the presence of the Etruscans in “Tuder”, however, was massive and important, as is testified by the Etruscan funerary furniture discovered in the city. It can be argued that the city maintains, even today, a particularly historical integrity; in fact, in the urban aspect, the ancient Roman "municipium" remained virtually unaltered, although in the nineteenth century, the city underwent several renovations especially for improving roads inside and outside the walls, but, overall, the Old Town of Todi was well maintained over the years The old Tolentino - “Tolentinum” - is situated on a hill round base, at the foot of which Chienti River flows. Tolentino is in a territory of ancient settlement; archaeological studies show the presence of hunters in Lower Paleolithic, as well as the civilization is well attested in the Iron Age necropolis of Tolentino (sixth century BC), which has funeral finds giving signs of the presence of a warrior society, for presence of weapons, bronze vessels, potteries and various ornaments in tombs. The cemeteries of Marches were well described by archaeologists; they consist of graves without overlap, and the deceased was found in a crouching position with his head resting on a stone. As regards the Roman penetration, studies pointing to deduction of colonies in Marches, including "Tolentinum", around the third century BC (For these aspects, see G. Buti-G. Devoto, “Preistoria e Storia delle Regioni Italiane” [" The Prehistory and History of Italian Regions"] , Florence, Sansoni, 1975, pp. 81-86).
Tuscania, like many neighboring towns, is situated on seven headlands tuff, located between the rivers “Marta” and “Capecchio”, overlooking the valley of “Marta”, an important road that connected, since prehistoric times, the Lake of “Bolsena” with the Tyrrhenian Sea. The etymology of the city is quite transparent. The Romans called the city "Tuscana", from "Tuscia" ("Etruria"); thus, "Tuscana" was "the city of the Etruscans”. Secondiano Campanari, in the nineteenth century, noted that " [...] really, from 'tuscaniensis' [" inhabitant of Tuscana "] should come 'Tuscan-i-a' and not 'Tusc-a-na', but it is certain that, in ancient times, this town was called both ways [...]" (see Secondiano Campanari in “Giornale Arcadico di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti” ["Arcadian Journal of Sciences, Letters and Arts"], Rome, 1837, p. 50). Campanari then adds that in medieval times it was also called "Tuscanella" and "Toscanella," perhaps to avoid confusion with the Region of Tuscany.
Writing of Urbino 2500 years ago, Servius, in his "Commentary of the 'Aeneid'" (5, 755), wrote: "[...] Et ita sulco ducto loca murorum designabant [...]" - "And thus, tracing the furrow, they indicate the position of walls [...]", and traces of Roman walls are also now preserved in the Lapidary Museum of the “Palazzo Ducale”.
Ventimiglia is located at the mouth of the River Roia, which flows into the Ligurian Sea. The Roia divides the city into two zones, the Medieval Part, the so-called "Upper Ventimiglia," and the modern town, built from the beginning of the nineteenth century on the Left Bank.
Origins of the name VolterraA very ancient city of Etruscan origin, Volterra was originally known by the name of Velathri, a term quite widely used across the Etruscan region. According to linguists Velathri derives from the ancient 'Velzna', a term also related to other place names such as Feltre, the old Volsinii (Orvieto), and Bologna (in the Etruscan language 'Felsina' or 'Felsnal'). The name, according to the most authoritative Italian scholars, while indicating a place, would originally have been an ancient name of a noble family then later becoming a place name. As for the meaning of the term, it seems that the Etruscan names containing the root 'Vel' usually indicated a height, a hill. By extension, the same root as "Vel" was found in the names of families of "high" status. The Romans translated the name as Volaterrae
The city of Orvieto identifies itself with its cathedral, one of the greatest masterpieces of Italian Gothic, built between 1290 and 1330. Inside it contains a number of works of art of extraordinary value, like the bronze bust of Urban VIII (1568-1644) by Bernini (1598-16809, the "Madonna and Saints" by Pinturicchio (1454-1513), some frescoes by Gentile da Fabriano (1375-1427), Filippo Lippi (1406-1469), and Signorelli (1445-1523).
Soranus is the ancient name for the hill town of Sorano, in Tuscany, Italy. Our contributor also kindly included some interesting notes about the roots of the name of the town, a fascinating story that tells us a little about why the twon came into being 2500 years ago, that I include here for the curious and the interested: With regards to the etymology of Sorano, studies point to a noble family name, "Soranus", and nothing more; but it should be noted that Sorano was an Etruscan area, as amply demonstrated by the cemetery surrounding the village, and the Etruscans deeply rooted worship of God "Soranus", a cult that was practiced in the mountainous and inaccessible areas.
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